WEEK 1 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

WEEK 1 - Coursework Example Laws are necessary because it is almost impossible to put together large groups of people without governing them by a standard set of generally accepted concepts and behavior. Without laws, people will be free to do anything they want without consideration for other people around them. Absence of laws will create inequality, because everyone will merely be governed by â€Å"instincts,† where only the strong and powerful can survive. For example, in history, when the populations of the colonies began to grow, the differences between these colonies grew as well (Harr, Hess, and Orthmann 7). These differences, when not contained properly, or channeled effectively, will cause chaos among people and cause deterioration to the structure of a society. The nation was founded on the idea of societal cohesiveness, that is â€Å"one nation, with liberty and justice for all† (Harr, Hess, and Orthmann 15). The negative effect of pluralism is the problem of vast differences among people who, despite belonging to different groups, still try to live with each other in peace and order. Differences in ideas, beliefs, and even culture makes it harder to formulate a constitution that is fit and just for everyone involved. Framers of the Constitution recognized that the people are the power (Harr, Hess, and Orthmann 15), and if the people are the power, then there will be several â€Å"powers† to consider when framing the laws that will benefit everyone. From a personal viewpoint, it must have been quite hard to welcome diversity based on the want for equality for all. There must have been a thin line between suppression and exploitation of the differences of each group, and structuring a society that is fit for everyone. In looking at the Boston Tea Party, it could be said that it was a success. It provoke such reaction from Great Britain,which prompted the King to pass â€Å"intolerable acts† to the people. These acts were a) restrictions to town meetings, b)

Portrayals and portraits Essay Example for Free

Portrayals and portraits Essay The processes of public memory in regard to Sojourner Truth already are framed by the multiple figurations that existed in the public consciousness prior to the three specific commemorative campaigns that form the focus of this study. Although some of the specific details vary, the basic outlines of Truths life are accessible. Born as a slave in upstate New York around 1797 and originally named Isabella, Truth was freed according to the dictates of state law in 1827. She adopted the name of Sojourner Truth and began a life of freedom that progressed through three distinct stages. The first stage is marked by her involvement with the Kingdom, an infamous religious community led Robert Matthews, also know as Matthias. After Truth left the Kingdom in 1834 she traveled through New York and Connecticut, speaking at various religious camp meetings. Friends eventually directed her to the Northampton Association of Education and Industry in Massachusetts, a group founded on socialist and transcendentalist ideas. In this second stage, Truths involvement with the Northampton group introduced her to several notable public advocates, including William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and Olive Gilbert, who would later become her first collaborator on her Narrative (Fitch Mandziuk, 1997, p. 16). When the Northampton Association disbanded in 1849, Truth entered her third stage as an advocate for the anti-slavery and womens rights causes. She lived and traveled in Ohio for a few years, finally settling in Battle Creek, Michigan in 1857 where she resided until her death. During this third stage, Truth traveled widely through eastern and mid-western states, often appearing as a popular speaker at conventions and meetings. Among the events in this third stage of Truths life that have become the fuel for her mythic meanings were her famous 1851 speech at a womens rights convention in Akron, Ohio and an 1858 confrontation with a hostile male audience in Silver Lake, Indiana where she bared her breast to prove she was female. In her own time, Truths contemporaries in their descriptions and accounts had transformed her tale variously to depict her as a tragic victim of slavery, a religious pilgrim, a comic caricature, and a fiery orator and advocate for womens rights (Fitch Mandziuk, 1997; Mabee Newhouse, 1993; Mandziuk Fitch, 2001; Painter 1994, 1996). While it is impossible to know how much control Truth actually exerted over the costuming and posing of these images, they do offer a striking alternative to the often grotesque, defiant, or devout descriptions of her that were available in print at the time. In all but one, Truth is seated. In these she is located in settings containing middle-class accoutrements such as bookcases, carved chairs, flowers, and books. In all of the portraits she is dressed in a fringed shawl and wears tailored clothing of heavy, patterned fabrics. In some she holds knitting; in one an open portrait of a young male rests in her lap. In the other portrait she is standing, her right hand resting on a cane with her left arm at her side. In all but two, she wears eyeglasses. In some she looks past the camera, directing her glance sideways or downward; in others her glance is more leveled and direct. The images are striking for their middle-class depictions; as Painter (1996) observes, In none of these portraits is there anything beyond blackness that would inspire charitynothing of the piteous slave mother or the weird Matthias Kingdom, no bared arms, no bodice taken down in public, nothing of Stowes amusing naif. The cartes de visite show a solid bourgeoisie (p. 196). These photographic images have been reproduced ever since on posters, buttons, cards, and t-shirts; importantly, they serve as the primary source material for any other interpretations and representations of Truths physical appearance. Contemporary campaigns to commemorate Truth in material form necessarily draw from these available portrayals and portraits. There is much room for negotiation and advocacy, however, around precisely which version of Truth will be visualized at a particular time and place, as well as who has the right to control and retain ownership of that image. As Painter (1996) concludes, Even today, when Truth can symbolize the angry black woman for most of her audience, others can see her as a kind of pet (p. 129). In the three recent debates over establishing statues of Truth, the ideological implications of the choices made indicate clear differences regarding her symbolic meanings. A preference for the bourgeois, devout, serious image among predominantly white communities marks her as a symbol of accommodation, while African American public memory continues to evoke the mythology of Gages defiant advocate and radical critique of white audiences. In each debate over how Truth would be remembered the concept of character provides an important lens to assess the meaning of each commemoration. From among the available portrayals and photographic records, each representation of Truth selected particular elements while deflecting others. The dimensions included in each characterization of Truth provide a revelatory index to the particular values of the community and the means through which her image was adapted to suit various purposes. Essentially, character provides the window to how questions of identity politics were negotiated in each instance. In the Portrait Monument dispute, the image of Truth in evoked by the National Political Congress of Black Women reference the angry orator first envisioned by Frances Gage in 1863. In this version, Truth symbolizes the defiant insistence on race as a central consideration in public debate and the processes of public memory, an adaptation of this persona often used by black women to challenge white exclusionary tactics. The characteristics depicted in the Battle Creek and Northampton statues invoke the alternative image of Truth as the upholder of principles of equality and faith. These two commemorations replicate the bourgeois aspects of Truths cartes de visite, yet also depict her in safe and comforting ways. The defiant Truth is subordinated in favor of likenesses that reflect abstract values and celebrate conciliation rather than ones that insist on recognizing am valuing difference. Evaluation of the dimension of character in the process of public memory thus reveals the ideological functions served by a particular commemorative representation. These campaigns to re-present Truth in a material form reveal the uncertainties in the process of public memory, as well as the ways in which the practice often accommodates and dissipates political challenges to the values held dear by dominant culture. Among the potential meanings of Truth, her symbolic appropriation as a sign of the ideals of equality and justice easily is reconcilable with our American democratic mythology and frequent delusion that inequities can be solved simply through individual acts of faith and hope. Consequently, Truth is appropriated in her most bourgeois, benign, and reverent form. The Truth commemorated is an image that is ambiguous enough for us to find residues of her race and gender meanings within it if we so desire, but is also abstract enough to be of no threat on either front. (Manziuk, 2003) Genealogical research, when conducted within the context of African-American history using a variety of resources, offers a more encompassing perspective of the African American family in American society. In other words, our individual family photographs can provide a wealth of information about society in general.

Over Population :: essays research papers

Over Population The world’s population is approximately 5.9 billion, and it is still growing. It has just about doubled in the past forty years. We are now faced with the issue of over population. The problem is very severe, and important. It is controversial how many people this planet can hold. Some are arguing that we have plenty of room, and we could fit everyone on the state of Alaska, if we just put 10,000 people on each square mile. Alaska only makes up about one percent of the earth’s land mass. Other people argue that we need land to grow and supply all the resources we need, and we do not have enough for everybody. Either way the issue is looked at though, many people are being deprived of food, shelter and clothing because of the excess of people. Many countries are reducing their population by family planning. Family planning tries to promote the idea of using some sort of birth control such as condoms, the pill, sterilization, IUDs, or some other method. Over the past three decades, the global percentage of couples using some form of family planning has increased dramatically. It has changed from less than 10, to more than 50 percent. The amount of people who use family planning would increase if everyone had easy accessibility to it. In some rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa, it takes an average of two hours to reach the nearest contraceptive provider. Often, people cannot even afford some type of birth control. Also, many governments ban or restrict important methods of contraception. Japan, for instance, discourages the use of birth control pills over the condom. Also, 60 countries require a husband’s consent for all forms of birth control. Even though there are some conflicts with it, I think family planning seems like the best to solve the world’s over population problem. China’s one child policy is generally denounced by a majority of world nations. Many countries feel that it is not right to restrict the number of children a person can have. They believe it is a person’s freedom to choose how many kids they want. China hopes for their fertility rate to be 1 child per woman instead of the 1.85 rate they currently have. Even though China’s policy is very controversial, China thinks this is what they need to do in order for their population growth to drop.

Minority Group Status

A minority group refers to a subordinate group whereby the members do not have enough control over their lives and do not have power to effectively fight for their rights. A minority group is inferior and is usually dominated by the rest, who are usually the majority group. The minority group experiences rather few opportunities to pursue their goals since education, success and wealth is limited to them. Such opportunities are disproportionately very low when compared to their population within the society. (Feagin, 2000) Characteristics of Minority Group Status A minority group has a number of characteristics which distinguish them from the majority group. The characteristics make them stand out from the rest and become easily identifiable. One characteristic of the members of the minority group is that they have distinguishing cultural or physical traits, for example skin color (physical) and language (cultural). A good example is Blacks in countries which are largely dominated by Whites. Another characteristic is that they usually face unequal treatment and have less power and therefore are not in full control of what goes around them. Mostly, the members claim of receiving unfair treatment and are constantly discriminated against. (Peter & Trauttman, 2006) In extreme cases, the members may be denied their rights to access certain resources, for, example, having recreational facilities strictly for majority group and restricting the minority group from accessing them. The third characteristic is that the members do not belong to the minority group by choice. The membership is therefore involuntary and no one can be compelled to remain a member or give up the membership since it is through race, power or even law that a person finds himself or herself belonging to the minority group. The fourth characteristic is that there is usually a high degree of awareness of subordination as well as a strong sense of solidarity among the members. The last characteristic is that, the majority group is high characterized by in-group marriages due to their close association and collaboration. (Jacob, 2005) Different Ways in Which Groups Become Minorities There are various ways in which groups become minorities numerically and socially. Numerically the minority group is judged by virtue of being few in numbers, for example, racial whereby the members are classified on some obvious characteristics, such as skin color. These characteristics are visible. For instance, Racial minority groups in US; American Indian, Blacks, Hawaiians and Asian Americans. Socially, the minority group is judged on the basis of inferior culture, faith, or belief as in gender, ethnic and religion. (Jacob, 2005) Ethnically, the groups are classified on cultural basis, such as food and language. Ethnic Minority Groups in US include Latinos and Hispanics such as Puerto Ricans, Chicanos and Cubans. The Jews are also part of the cultural minorities. In terms of gender, males are usually the social majority and women are the social minority. In religion, the minorities are the members who do not have the same faith as the majority group. For instance, Muslims, Mormons, Roman Catholics and Amish are religious minorities in US. (Peter & Trauttman, 2006) Consequences of Minority Group Status Some of the consequences are pluralism, assimilation, fusion, segregation, secession, expulsion and extermination. In pluralism, this is whereby the minority and majority groups or individuals maintain their different identities, that is, Whites are represented by Whites and Blacks by Blacks. In assimilation, the minority group identifies with the majority group in terms of culture and consequently is absorbed by the dominant group. In fusion, the majority and minority group merge to create a new group. (Feagin, 2000) Their cultures and physical characteristics are synthesized without intermarrying. In segregation, these two groups are physically separated in terms of work place, residence and social functions. In secession, the minority group moves out to create a new nation or join an established nation, whereby it becomes dominant. In expulsion, the minority group may be forced to leave a certain region or even thrown out of the country by the dominant group. In, extermination, the minority group is wiped out through genocide or systematic, deliberate killing. (Feagin, 2000) Conclusion From the discussion above, the existence of minority group status is not healthy though it cannot be avoided. Many divisions result from such differences making it impossible for a certain group to pursue their common goals and encourage vices such as discrimination against tribe, gender and religion. (Peter & Trauttman, 2006) References Feagin, J. (2000) Racial and Ethnic Relations, Palgrave Publishers, US. Jacob, C. (2005) What is a Minority Group, Palgrave Publishers, UK. Peter, Z. & Trauttmann, C. (2006) Distinguishing between Minority and Majority Group,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fireside Press, Washington DC.   

Paper on Education: A Gift or Not

The term education can mean many things. An education is the collective knowledge a person has, but what does an education mean? Although an education can be paid for, no one can physically give you an education, so it is not a gift. There are societal situations where an education is a necessity, but not many globally. Education is a tool to be utilized differently in every part of the world. Knowledge is power, but some knowledge is more powerful depending on your region. If you are part a primitive tribe in New Guinea, a person that is considered to be educated may be illiterate. Whereas in America, an illiterate person would have trouble functioning at all in society. Education is a tool that is to be developed by a combination of motivation, preparation, support, and society. An education can be offered to someone, but the pupil can only take from it what is put in. A gift is something that can be given to someone regardless of the effort put forth by the individual, therefore an education is not a gift. Although an education cannot be given to someone, and it is not a gift, there are things that can be given to you that contribute to your education. Perhaps the greatest thing that can be provided is support. When a parent or teacher rewards a child for learning, it makes a connection in the child's mind that an education will pay off. When an educated and successful family strongly support a child's education, that child will have a better chance to obtain an education. The child will see that education and success coincide. A person that is to be educated has to be given many opportunities to learn new things. Some of these opportunities are as simple as letting your four-year-old watch â€Å"Sesame Street† or letting your six-year-old make a sandwich. There are cases, however, when parents are not able to promote their children's education. If the parents are poor and uneducated, then a child will most likely be unmotivated towards school. The child might realize that his parents are managing to pull through, and think that he will be able to survive without an education as well. This will withhold the child from opportunities that an education would provide. Allowing that certain educational gifts are given to a person, they can acquire the motivation it takes to receive an education. Once you have made the decision to attain an education, certain virtues must be possessed. You must be motivated by something, weather it be money, power, or just the desire to learn. It is motivation that drives you to learn new things and to expand your horizons. You must prepare for an education. For everything that you want to know, there is something else you need to know first. Before you can be proficient on a piano you must know music, and before you can be proficient on a computer you must learn to use a keyboard and a mouse. Even though these skills may seem intuitive to some, someone from a different social culture may not have been introduced to these ideas at all. You must also have certain resources provided. To learn in an institution, often times you need money, books, and other materials that, sadly enough, cannot always be secured. This situation exemplifies the problems that one can face when an education is desired but outside scarcities disallow. There are some circumstances where special educational aspects are a necessity in a certain region, but education is not global. In most developed countries a lawyer would be considered an educated person, but if a lawyer was sent to a more primitive society he would be lost. A farmer educated in cultivation in Nebraska could nourish himself indefinitely, but take away his farm and he has nothing but the knowledge of farming. There are certain things that a person must know in order to have the power to survive in a chosen society. These things change with regards to the society at hand. In more developed places it is pertinent that you know how to read. Without this skill a person will remained severely uninformed, disconnected, and uneducated. The ability to read is the stepping stone to self-education. A literate person with motivation and knowledge of construction can become successful with very little institutionalized education. This skill, as it applies to American social culture, is the most important attribute of an education. Without the ability to read, a person would have to either settle for an extremely unskilled job, grow their own food, or resort to thievery. In a accomplished society such as this, not many people find the need to do these things. Instead people achieve an education, learn a trade or a profession, and earn money to prosper. However, in some societies it is perfectly normal not to be able to read, and a person will manage to survive on other skills such as hunting. Regardless of where you are or what you do, education is an asset. It is a tool that you add to every day, and that no one can take from you. Once you have truly learned something, it will be with you forever, and you will be able to put that information into use whenever it applies. Your education is something you truly own. It cannot be taken away in a bet, by a bankruptcy, and it cannot be stolen. Once you are educated in a particular field, you have job security. If you are a programmer, and your company goes under, you will be able to find another position as a programmer. When you are educated you make more money and have the better jobs, because it shows that you are dedicated to learning. You will not age as fast as someone with a labor intensive job, and chances are you will not have a career ending injury on the job. It is education that gives you options, keeps you connected to the world, and keeps you informed. Although an uneducated person has the resources to inform themselves, they rarely have the ability or motivation it takes to utilize these resources. An education can be achieved by anyone who has the motivation, support, and resources it takes too receive an education according to their perception. This education is a made up of support, motivation, and the necessity to survive. This education cannot be taken. This education means survival and success.

Religion in Japan and China Review Essay

Religion in Japan and China Review Essay Religion in Japan and China Review Essay Example Religion in Japan and China Review Essay Example Nowadays, the study of Chinese and Japanese cultures is not only of academic interest. The Far East has a special and unique place in today’s world permeated by the processes of globalization and modernization. The technological civilization of the West has penetrated the East, changed a lot in the cultural sphere, and realigned social relations that have been taking shape for thousands of years. However, the East remains a bastion of tradition in opposition to the totality of modernization. These transformations have affected mostly external aspects of life such as the sphere of science and technology, but they are unable to shake the depth of culture, namely paradigms, laws, and principles underlying the human existence in the East. China and Japan have not lost their identity while borrowing the Western achievements. The diversity of the Chinese and Japanese cultures manifests itself mostly in the variety of religions of these countries. The comparison of the traditional religious systems of China and Japan shows that they both are based on similar religious and philosophical paradigms. Japan as an Independent Culture Japan was initially treated as a carrier of the Chinese culture and did not stand out as an independent cultural-historical type and civilization. This point of view existed in the cultural sciences until the second half of the 20th century. It appeared not only in the early historical and typological concepts, but also in the works of the later researchers. For example, Arnold Joseph Toynbee described the Japanese culture as a â€Å"filial† in relation to the Chinese culture, but he did not pay attention to the identity of the Japanese culture (Earhart, 2013). However, modern science recognizes the ethnic identity of Japan and comes close to the recognition of its cultural identity. The research thought has moved from trying to ignore the uniqueness of the Japanese culture to the recognition of the ethnic autonomy of China and Japan. The basic religions of China and Japan – Taoism and Shinto – are the basis for arguing that both countries are autonomous in the r eligious and cultural way. Taoism and Shinto as the Original Religious Paradigms Both Taoism and Shinto are national religions. However, if Shinto is inalienable from the Japanese culture, then Taoism has a certain missionary enthusiasm, through which it has spread in most countries of the Far East region. Shinto is characterized as a more archaic religion than Taoism. There are certain obvious manifestations of its archaism. Firstly, it is the lack of philosophical and theoretical formation. Secondly, Shinto has no formations at all, i.e. it has an immensely large integrity as compared with Taoism (Aston, 2015). The latter is a religion as well as a philosophy, but Shinto is a religion only. However, the division of religions into more or less archaic implies existence of some general timeline that is common to all phenomena of this kind. The phenomena, which are preserved as archaic or primitive ones, are usually compared with the early stages of the existence of complex phenomena. If one speaks about Shinto’s archaism based on the absence of theoretical constructs in this religion, then it would assume existence of some common law, according to which every traditional religion is obliged to give rise to its own philosophy sooner or later. The next significant difference is a distinction not only between Taoism and Shinto but also between Chinese and Japanese mentalities as a whole. It is about a phenomenal disinclination of traditional Japanese thinking towards abstraction and speculation. When it comes to comparing Eastern and Western thinking, rejection of abstract constructions is considered as the prerogative of the East. However, with regard to the Chinese culture, it would be correct to speak of unity and indivisibility of the theory and practice, the abstract and the concrete, the speculative and the empirical (Mou, 2012). Such integrity of the Chinese traditional thinking, which has been observed by the generations of Western thinkers since the 19th century, makes the Far Eastern mentality so different from the West (Mou, 2012). Even sciences in traditional China represent a relatively holistic and amorphous body of knowledge, which combines quite heterogeneous and diverse ideas and facts in the most direct way. Mythology, astrology, alchemy, and magic are inseparable from cosmology, astronomy, chemistry, and medicine respectively and so on. The treatise, which tells of common categories of the ontological character, may simultaneously be a tool to achieve physical immortality with the help of certain quite specific practices (Mou, 2012). In contrast, Japan just has borrowed similar categories from China since the period of antiquity, namely the Asuka and Nara periods (Aston, 2015). However, such categories have never acquired importance and significance they had in China. As a manifestation of the above regulations, the ancient texts have played an important role in Taoism and Shinto. One of the manifestations of the detachment of traditional Japanese thinking from theory is a pure practicality of all Old Japanese texts. Shinto religion has a collection of myths, ritual prayers, and even secular literature and poetry, which date back to ancient ritual chants (Aston, 2015). However, it has no similar persons to Lao-Tzu, Ge Hong, or Zhang Boduan. It means that Shinto is not familiar with a genre of the theoretical and practical treatise, which is very characteristic of Taoism and combines the ideas of ontological, anthropological, and ethical character. Neither Taoism nor Confucianism has a single kind of Bible, but both Chinese religions worshiped a number of books that make up a more or less universally recognized canon (Mou, 2012). As for the Shinto religion, it has no similar or any other canon (Aston, 2015). Taoist and Shinto anthropological ideas are also different. In the majority of Taoist traditions, a person is thought of as a psychophysical unity. The existence of the spirit depends on the existence of the body and the vital energy (or qi) acts as an intermediary between the two (Mou, 2012). Accordingly, improvement, the ultimate goal of which is achievement of immortality, means the change of moral and ethical qualities of the individual as well as transformation of the body. Classic religious Taoism understands transformation of a human being into the immortal as the preservation and improvement of corporeality (Mou, 2012). Other Taoist traditions represent the final stage of the transformation relating to the release from the corpse (or shijie) and the transformation of a person into a pure spirit (or shen) (Mou, 2012). It is important to emphasize the role of corporeality in both cases. In the first case, a man acquires immortality in the flesh, but in the second case the body acts as a stepping-stone to achieve immortality. In Shinto, the body and the spirit are related somewhat differently. On the one hand, the spirit (or kami) is not always the phenomenon of non-physical nature. For example, kami can be a bizarre wood or stone (Aston, 2015). The Japanese have borrowed an idea of the ki energy (or qi in the Chinese culture) from China (Aston, 2015). As a consequence, a man is thought of as a unity of the spiritual and the corporeal. On the other hand, a person becomes kami after death and the body does not matter in the process. Paradoxically, Shinto does not imply the bodily immortality at all. Eve ry person becomes kami after death according to Shinto religion (Aston, 2015). In contrast, immortality is a destiny of the few in Taoism. Immortality in Taoism is achieved only by individual efforts in both the field of ethics and mystical practices. Thus, one can assume that Shinto is a religion that regulates the life of the community. In turn, Taoism is a religion, which regulates the life of the community on the demotic level and allows one to achieve individual immortality on the elitist level (Mou, 2012). The main virtues of Taoism are the naturalness (or tzu-jan) and the non-action (or wuwei) (Mou, 2012). The meaning of these concepts varied through the ages. The concept of naturalness meant detachment and depersonalization for ancient Taoists. However, it could mean the following to passions and emotions since the Han era (Mou, 2012). The first interpretation aims at not only perfection of the individual, but also the benefit of the society. The second interpretation is essentially antisocial. As for Shinto, the ethics of this religion is not so much religious as magical; it is a kind of a set of taboos (Aston, 2015). The belief in the divinity of the ruler and the sanctity of the social hierarchy are among the foundations of the Shinto religion, but they are not the subject of a special ethical reflection. Features of Confucianism in China and Japan The fundamental principles of Confucianism in both China and Japan are patriotism, sacralization of the ruler, rigidity of the social hierarchy, conservatism, and the holiness of tradition. The essential difference between the Chinese and Japanese conservatism is that Confucianism is focused on the development, education, and improvement of the human society, but the autochthonous ethics of Japan is only aimed at preserving the existing order (Yang Tamney, 2011). In addition, it does not imply either individual ethical responsibility or transformation of the society and the individual. The ideas of self-cultivation began to be formed in Japan only under the Chinese influence (Earhart, 2013). Ethics in Confucianism as a unified system is inseparable from epistemology, theoretical knowledge, and development of specific literary, philosophical, historical, and poetic monuments. This unity of ethics and epistemology is expressed in the category of wen (Yang Tamney, 2011). The latter includes appropriate social behavior, appropriate creative-ordering principle, and familiarizing with the literary heritage and a set of books of the Confucian canon in the narrowest sense. As noted above, the Japanese thinking is less inclined to the theory than the Chinese one. Japan had neither â€Å"philosophical explosion† like the one that happened in China in the era of Zhou, nor ideological struggle of various schools of ethics (Kitagawa,1990). Studying of such Confucian literature as canonical books, treatises, chronicles, and poetry for didactic purposes in Japan was local in nature. Actually, the Japanese ethics remained much less connected with epistemology than the Chinese on e, even absorbing a number of Confucian ideas and categories (Earhart, 2013). The role of the theoretical and didactic text remains insignificant in Japan. With respect to both cultures, one can talk about the top-down dissemination of the Confucian ideology, from the aristocracy and intellectual elite to the lower strata of the population (Yang Tamney, 2011). However, there is one important difference. The officialdom was the ruling class throughout the history of China. In Japan, the power was in the hands of the military class, namely the samurai, since the 12th century and until the collapse of the traditional way of life in the 19th century (Earhart, 2013). Thus, Japanese Confucianism was primarily a military ideology. The perception of cultural and military principles is different in China and Japan. They were called wen and wu in China and ben and bu in Japan accordingly (Yang Tamney, 2011). Chinese Confucianism gives an unconditional preference to wen, suggesting wu is a necessary evil. The point of view of the Japanese varied between the recognition of the equivalence of the two principles and the condemnation of the cultural activity as detrimental to the service and fulfillment of duty. One of the key ideas of the Chinese social philosophy is the idea of the â€Å"Mandate of Heaven† (or tianming), which has never been accepted by the Japanese. Chinese Confucianism, despite its conservatism, admits the possibility of insurrection and rebellion even against the supreme power (Yang Tamney, 2011). This aspect is alien to the Japanese mentality. If the Chinese ethical ideal implies submission to a ruler as long as he himself is a carrier of proper ethical qualities, then the Japanese ideal implies absolute submission (Kitagawa, 1990). Hence, it may explain the unity of the Japanese imperial dynasty and the uniquely small number of uprisings of the lower classes throughout the Japanese history. Thus, Chinese Confucianism allows one to climb the social ladder. In turn, the kinship actually does not allow upward mobility in the traditional Japanese society. Both Chinese and Japanese ethics prescribes service and obedience to elders (Yang Tamney, 2011). The immediate environment as family or clan is on the first place for the Chinese. However, the ministry to a lord or a ruler is of higher priority for the Japanese even if it is to the detriment of the family. The specifics of the Chinese prioritization is due to both geographical conditions (large spatial extent of China) and Taoist-Confucian paradigm (Yang Tamney, 2011). Priorities of the Japanese ethics are due to, respectively, the small size of the inhabited territory and the specifics of the Japanese Confucianism, namely the cult of unconditional obedience and self-sacrifice (Kitagawa, 1990). Chinese and Japanese Buddhism Buddhism has had a much greater impact on the formation of statehood in Japan than in China. Buddhism entered China after the reunification of the country around the middle of the Han Dynasty. After the adoption of Buddhism as a state religion in China, it was periodically becoming closer to the authorities, alternating with the periods of disgrace (Schlütter, 2010). On the contrary, Buddhism played a special role in Japan at the stage of the country’s emergence as a political entity. Buddhism in Japan was a way to substantiate claims of the imperial house to the throne. The Buddhist community had the greatest political influence in the early stages of the Japanese history, namely the Nara and Heian periods (Schlütter, 2010). There are also the phenomena of Chan and Zen Buddhism, which are also different. Chan Buddhism is one of the peripheral components of the Chinese traditional culture, but its Japanese equivalent is one of the main paradigms of the Japanese culture. This is due to the fact that Chan Buddhism remains a relatively elitist phenomenon, which has affected only some principles of art on the general cultural level (Schlütter, 2010). In contrast, Zen Buddhism has become the ideology of the samurai, which were the ruling class in Japan (Schlütter, 2010). Thus, it has penetrated almost all levels of human activity in the Japanese culture. The Chinese and Japanese religions not only rely on largely similar religious-mythological and philosophical paradigms, but also differ extensively. The ideas of close connection of physical and spiritual components of human beings and the possibility of achieving bodily immortality are characteristic of the Chinese religions. In turn, the Japanese religions are characterized by an acute experience of the short duration of human existence and, consequently, the lack of practices to achieve individual immortality. The basis of social and ethical ideas of both religions and cultures is unified within the Confucian paradigm. However, Chinese Confucianism gives people the possibility to make assessment of the superior and, as a consequence, the right to an ideologically justified protest. Japanese Confucianism is characterized by humility and submissiveness to a lord or a ruler. Finally, a traditional Chinese religious, social, and ethical ideal is a scientist, scholar, poet, or writer who is capable of climbing the career ladder due to personal talent and knowledge or to go in search of the immortality. Not only Taoist mysticism, but also rationally oriented Confucianism recognizes immortality as an attribute of an ethically perfect person. In turn, a Japanese religious, social, and ethical ideal is a samurai or warrior who is loyal to his lord unreservedly regardless of the moral qualities of the latter.

Affirmatative Action essays

Affirmatative Action essays The attitude that we seek not the "best individual" but the individual who will contribute the most to the whole applies in other walks of life besides sports. Think about the example of college admissions today. Is it constitutional for a school to look merely for the students who individually are the best academically if there even is a way to measure this? Or should it also be concerned about which mix of students will create the environment that can best contribute to the educational experience at the college, and which mix of students will lead to the graduating class that can best benefit society? The U.S. Supreme Court's decision to hear Grutter and Gratz vs. Bollinger, a case challenging the University of Michigan's racial preferences has refueled the affirmative action debate. The focal point of the debate is whether affirmative action violates civil rights. It's difficult to debate the issue intelligently because we're talking past one another - as we haven't chosen to define affirmative action. Let's look at it. Affirmative action means different things to different people. So allow me to list some of those alternative interpretations. To some Americans, perhaps most, affirmative action means a policy of nondiscrimination. A university or an employer should cast a wide net in its recruitment, admissions or hiring policy by advertising and recruiting in minority schools, social organizations and newspapers. But in the actual admissions or hiring, individuals are treated equally by race. For other Americans, there should be racial preferences. If a white candidate and a black candidate are equal in qualifications for university admission or employment, the preference should be given to the black candidate. For another group of Americans, they reject the first 2 Affirmative Action definitions. In fact, they see those forms of affirmative action as racially insensitive at best, and at wors...

Definition and Examples of Media in Communications

Definition and Examples of Media in Communications In the communication process, a medium is a channel or system of communication- the means by which  information (the message) is transmitted  between a speaker or writer (the sender) and an audience (the receiver). The plural form is  media, and its also known as a channel. The medium used to send a message may range from an individuals voice, writing, clothing, and body language to forms of mass communication such as newspapers, television, and the internet. Communication Media Changes Over Time Before the printing press, mass communication didnt exist, as books were hand-written and literacy wasnt widespread throughout all social classes. The invention of moveable type was a major communication innovation for the world. Author Paula S. Tompkins sums up the history of communication and change thusly: When a communication medium changes, our practices  and  experiences of communication also change. The technology of writing liberated human communication from the medium of face-to-face (f2f) interaction. This  change affected both the process and  experience of communication, as persons no longer needed to be physically present to communicate with one another. The technology of the printing press further promoted the medium of writing by  mechanizing the creation and distribution of the written word. This began the new communication form of mass communication in pamphlets, newspapers, and cheap books, in contrast to the medium of handwritten documents and books.  Most recently, the medium of digital technology  is again changing the process and experience of human communication.(Practicing Communication Ethics: Development, Discernment, and Decision-Making. Routledge, 2016) Television mass media used to distill the news into a nightly news hour. With the advent of 24-hour news channels on cable, people could check in hourly or at any point in the hour to find out the latest news. Now, with social media platforms and the ubiquitous smartphones in our pockets, we can check news and happenings- or be alerted of them- constantly throughout the day. This puts a lot more news up front just because its the most recent. News outlets and channels looking for peoples eyeballs on their content (and advertisers) have a lot of pressure to keep those updates coming to peoples feeds. The outrageous, shocking, and easily digestible gets shared more widely than something thats complex and nuanced. Something short gets read more widely than something long. Authors James W. Chesebro and Dale A. Bertelsen noted how modern messaging seems a lot more like marketing than discourse, and their observation has only been amplified with the advent of social media: [A] significant shift in the nature of communication has been reported for several decades. Increasingly, it has been noted that a shift from a content orientation- with its emphasis on the ideational or substantive dimension of  discourse- to a concern for form or  medium- with an emphasis on image, strategy, and patterns of discourse- has been identified as a central feature of the information age. (Analyzing Media: Communication Technologies as Symbolic and Cognitive Systems. Guilford Press, 1996) Is the Medium the Message? If the medium through which information is delivered via affects what people get out of it, that could have big implications for today. As people move away from the in-depth coverage of an issue they can receive in print media to getting more information from social media, they consume increasing amounts of their information in soundbites, shared snippets of news that may be slanted (or fake, i.e., completely invented with no basis in fact), or inaccurate. In the modern age of people will remember it if you repeat it often enough- it doesnt matter if its true, it takes deeper dives into the information by message receivers to find out the real story and any hidden motives behind the headlines. If the medium doesnt equate with the message, its still true that different formats carry different versions of the same story, such as in depth of information or in emphasis.

Work and energy Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Work and energy - Lab Report Example em corresponds to the net force that is the gravity, friction, and resistance through acting on the particle possessing kinetic energy either gained or lost by the prevailing particle. In a mechanical system, energy is neither generated nor devastated but is can be shifted from potential energy to the kinetic energy or from kinetic to potential. For an isolated system, there is the application of the Work-Energy Theorem states that any alteration in the total energy of a system occurs because of work. In case the system works on the outside the universe, then the W is positive, and the corresponding energy required executing work emanate from the system. Moreover, in case work done is done from the outside the system then W becomes negative and the energy of the system escalates. In case no work is done, the total energy of the underlying system does not alter. Taking a mass on the inclined plane and attached to the spring. The system gives two potential energies emanating from gravity and spring (Chen,pp.124-189). Concisely, the gravitational potential equivalent to the corresponding work demanded to the place the object at that height represented as PEg=mgh. Taking the height h, distance x and the angle ÃŽ ¸, gravitational potential becomes PEg= mgxsinÃŽ ¸ The underlying computer was booted in the bid to make the first set of the measurements. Motion Sensor’s phone plugs were connected to the Digital Channels 1 and 2. Yellow-branded (pulse) was filled into Digital Channel 1. Moreover, plug (echo) was also connected to the Digital Channel 2. The track was placed on the horizontal surface, and the lab jack was placed at one terminal track to the raise that ends. The end stop for the track ought to be placed at the higher end of the track so that the underlying magnets face away from the prevailing the track. The angle indicator was used to measure the incline angle of the track and recorded in the table. Motion Sensor was mounted at the low end of the track, and

American Foreign Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American Foreign Policy - Essay Example This form of power is often employed by a country having more economic and military power over its subject. This form of power is usually achieved by use of rewards such as economic inducements, promises of military support and alliances or through threats of punishment such as economic sanctions, coercive diplomacy and military interventions. The article ‘The Practice of Foreign Policy† clearly illustrates the concept of hard power adopted by the U.S. government over the past few years. The article brings to light the growing number of countries that have at one time or another experienced intrusion or use of hard power by the U.S. government. It highlights the growing discontent among countries such as Syria over president Obama’s wayward policies. In addition, the article analyses America’s stance towards war and use of diplomacy (â€Å"The Practice of Foreign Policy† 1). The U.S has been accused of spying Brazil and other countries, which basicall y is a form of hard power. The armed forces are described as â€Å"peerless†, illustrating hard power. In Syria, the U.S. government considered the possibility of a military assault following the use of chemical weapons by the Syrian president. However, this move was voted down by the Congress. This illustrates use of hard power. The U.S. ... government has specific interest in oil, Islamic terrorism, Israel and Iran. The U.S. government has placed a number of sanctions on Iran over its nuclear power program. This illustrates hard power (â€Å"The Practice of Foreign Policy† 2). Soft power as earlier described is a situation whereby a country uses persuasive tactics such as co-opting with other countries in order to influence their interests or behavior. Soft power is becoming more and more common in the world today. The article suggests that through developing good strategies and implementing them, the Obama administration can restore confidence and win back people. Soft power can also be enhanced by use of diplomacy. The number of diplomats ought to be increased as well as taking interest in their recommendations (â€Å"The Practice of Foreign Policy† 2). The article â€Å"Making up; Soft Power† illustrates use of hard power. The U.S. invasion of Iraq in the fight against al-Qaeda has been termed as use of hard power. The U.S. government used raw power in an effort to crush the outlawed group. The America’s interest was to fight terrorism. The U.S government has been criticized on many occasions for meddling with the Middle East, yet, it does so little to solve underlying problems. In Libya, the U.S. government exercised hard power by ousting the then president Muammar Qaddaffi from power. The U.S. has interest in humanitarian welfare following Muammar’s threats to kill innocent civilians. The article also raises concerns over the U.S. government’s widespread spying by the NSA. Spying illustrates use of hard power. In 2003, the U.S, invaded Iraq. Its interest was twofold; arresting proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and show of power or might (â€Å"Making up; Soft Power† 1). The

Lahore Pakistans Shahi Mohalla prostitution district Research Proposal

Lahore Pakistans Shahi Mohalla prostitution district - Research Proposal Example This dance was very exotic and colorful and was used to entertain the Muslim nobility of South Asia. In her book titled ‘Taboo’ The Hidden Culture of a Red Light Area’, eminent writer and human rights activist, Fouzia Saeed gives us the bigger picture of this famous red light district of Lahore’s famous Shahi Mohalla in Pakistan with all its prostitutes, pimps, customers, managers, musicians and all the others. The ancient traditions of great dances by courtesans used for entertaining the royalty, is still continued even today, while these people try to eke out a living. According to the writer Khushwant Singh, during the rule of Maharaja Ranjit Singh Hira Mandi was named after the minister who was in charge of that district called Hira Singh. Previously, it was called as Shahi Mohalla, which meant ‘Royal Neighborhood, because it was very near to the royal dwellings of the Mughals. This age old tradition of prostitution of South Asia is always very closely linked to great performances of both music and dance. This book also highlights the fact that these dancers and musicians have laid an indelible imprint in the world of performing arts by its contribution. According to Fouzia, ‘Pakistani society has created and reinforced many myths to explain why prostitution has nothing to do with ‘nice people’. These myths put all the blame on ‘immoral’ woman who are responsible for tricking ‘honest’ men into sinful acts.’ (Fouzia, 2001) However, our society not only discourages, but also prevents people from questioning these myths. The writer also states that, ‘By exposing our myths about prostitution, the book helps eradicate a blind spot in our understanding of power relations experienced by all women throughout our society.’ (Fouzia, 2001) Prostitutes do not earn huge sums of money and hence their children face very appalling conditions in the red light area. The Society for

Research on Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Research on Article - Essay Example This might have a devastating effect on the security status of the country. The bill will improve the security through counter-radicalization measures. This is through requiring that all schools and colleges work together with the government in ensuring that students do not get radicalized. This is through reporting any radicalized suspects to the authority. This will ensure that the young minds in the country are protected from destructive ideologies by the terrorist groups. The bill will make changes to the existing Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures. This is to make it possible for the authority to force a suspect to move to another country or town. The laws will also limit the movement of such suspects 1. However, in order to avoid any form of malicious deportation, the new TPIM has been changed to ensure that high standards of proof will be required before such orders are implemented. The bill intends to give the authority the power to seize a suspect’s passport at the airport. Currently, the Home secretary has to give authority to seize passport of a suspect. This has been slowing the fight against terrorism in the country. However, with this bill, the police and border officials will have the powers to confiscate the passport of a suspect temporarily for a period of thirty days as the investigations are being undertaken. This will contain the movement of the suspects. The bill intends to prevent jihadists from returning back to the country. Through Temporal Exclusion Orders, such suspects will be banned from entering the country for a period of two years. Nevertheless, they will only be allowed in the country under very strict measures. This aims at deterring the Britons from joining Terrorist groups. The passports of such suspects will be cancelled and put under â€Å"no fly lists† 1. This will hinder them from getting back to the country. Those who will be willing to come back to the

Yemen problems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Yemen problems - Essay Example The modern process of desalination aims at developing cost effective ways of water provision to the people along the coast. It is viewed as a rainfall independent source of water. The vapor – compression desalination process refers to the process used to distill water. This distillation process involves the evaporation of saline or sea water by the application of heat obtained from compressed vapor. The compression of vapor to be used in the desalination process links them together. Compression of vapor increases both temperature and pressure of the vapor. The latent heat generated at this stage can be used to generate more power and additional vapor. There are two methods that can apply the effect of compressed water. The first one, thermo compression, utilizes an ejector system, motivated by the steam found at the monomeric pressure obtained from an external source. This aims at recycling vapor from the desalination process. The second method involves compressing the water v apor with the use of a mechanical device. The mechanical vapor compression, MVC, in which the evaporation effect takes place at the manometer, is used to recycle water (Wang et al., 2008). The compression turbine facilitates the mechanical compression. The generated vapor gets directed back towards the heat exchanger condenser to turn the vapor into water. In the process, the resultant fresh water is transferred to a storage area while the heat removed in the condensation process gets transmitted back in the remaining feedback. The vapor compression units are applied in the desalination processes. Fig1. Desalination process As indicated in fig. 1 above, heat is introduced at the top of the loop by the cooling device. The heat vaporizes the liquid refrigerant found in the evaporation plate. The vapor is carried through to the compressor to sanction tube. Energy is supplied in order to warm vapor to obtain hot vapor with high pressure to be passed to the condenser. The boiling high-pr essure vapor discharges heat to the air stream on the other side of the condenser fins as it cools and condenses into warm liquid. The Warm liquid is then pumped from the bottommost of the condenser through an expansion device where temperature and pressure drop meaningfully, forming the refrigeration effect. The cycle completes as the cold fluid passes to the cold plate. Hui (2007) highlights that following advantages and disadvantages of Vapor Compression Merits  · trouble free, low maintenance compressor and cheap Low noise vibration Driven by live steam Ability to turn salty water into clean pure water  · Low mass flow rate  · high Vapor compression operations,  · Low cold plate temperature and the capability to transport heat away from the source. Demerits Require high steam pressure Relatively high quantity of hot processes water derived Dumping the unexploited salt solution back into the ocean makes the process difficult. The potential to destroy ocean life Energy req uirement for starting up power desalination plants is an enormous expense, and burning fossil fuels appear like choosing an environmental crisis. If regions located away from the coastline or in a high altitude make an effort to use desalinated water, it proves to be an even more costly process. High altitudes and distant distances require abundant resources to transport the water from the salt water body. It is an expensive venture Charitable organizations Several groups have come forward to help alleviate the water crisis in Yemen. The first group is the Islamic Relief, USA. It has been working towards a better future. The group has set up water supply systems in many parts including Sarohindi village. The project ensures that people get clean water for themselves and their animals.

Research on Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Research on Article - Essay Example This might have a devastating effect on the security status of the country. The bill will improve the security through counter-radicalization measures. This is through requiring that all schools and colleges work together with the government in ensuring that students do not get radicalized. This is through reporting any radicalized suspects to the authority. This will ensure that the young minds in the country are protected from destructive ideologies by the terrorist groups. The bill will make changes to the existing Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures. This is to make it possible for the authority to force a suspect to move to another country or town. The laws will also limit the movement of such suspects 1. However, in order to avoid any form of malicious deportation, the new TPIM has been changed to ensure that high standards of proof will be required before such orders are implemented. The bill intends to give the authority the power to seize a suspect’s passport at the airport. Currently, the Home secretary has to give authority to seize passport of a suspect. This has been slowing the fight against terrorism in the country. However, with this bill, the police and border officials will have the powers to confiscate the passport of a suspect temporarily for a period of thirty days as the investigations are being undertaken. This will contain the movement of the suspects. The bill intends to prevent jihadists from returning back to the country. Through Temporal Exclusion Orders, such suspects will be banned from entering the country for a period of two years. Nevertheless, they will only be allowed in the country under very strict measures. This aims at deterring the Britons from joining Terrorist groups. The passports of such suspects will be cancelled and put under â€Å"no fly lists† 1. This will hinder them from getting back to the country. Those who will be willing to come back to the

Personnel Management in Transition by Frederick Taylor Essay

Personnel Management in Transition by Frederick Taylor - Essay Example These were the most commonly used methods of work force organization. They were characterized by high levels of division and specialization of labour. These were viewed as the motivating factors for workers as well as increasing their output (Redman, T. and Wilkinson, A. 2006 86-93). In the early 20th century, Frederick Taylor developed principles whereby workers worked through division of labor and a performance based remuneration. Each worker was to be allocated a particular task in a bid to save time and increase production. Fordism took the same perspective of division of labor. It was mainly targeting division of labor in large industries with a characteristic high mechanization where by the process of production of is arranged in a sequence, with each stage of machine operations assigned to a particular operator (Antonio Gramsci’s 1993 pp. 77-81). However, managers have realized that flexibility facilitates work life balance amongst workers. They are able to control thei r working conditions such as the choice of where to work, the time when they should work as well as how they perform in the work. There are several ways through which firms can implement flexibility. These include policies on flexible hours. Flexibility of working hours allows fulfillment amongst the employees within the place of work as well as outside. This is usually beneficial to the business through improved productivity amongst the employees, which is attributed to job satisfaction. The employees are able to take care of family obligations as well as those of the work place (Bratton, J. and Gold, J. 2007 pp. 121-124). In that state, it is most likely that they will be more productive than working under tight schedules that do not allow them to take any other responsibility outside the paid work. The needs of employees towards work life balance are specific to individuals.

The Importance of Truth-Telling Essay Example for Free

The Importance of Truth-Telling Essay Telling the truth is something that comes up for the majority of us in childhood. It is considered impolite to lie and when a lie was told, or you were untruthful, it was often considered a reflection of your parents’ moral attitudes. Unfortunately, we all seem to have been taught differently the exact nature of a truth or lie and the right or wrong way to use that information. In To Lie or Not to Lie? – The Doctor’s Dilemma (2007), the topic of truth versus lies by doctors specifically, is discussed. While I believe it is important for doctors to be truthful in their dealings with patients, the 5 W’s need to be explored: what and to whom is truth, how and when are doctors choices for truth-telling determined and why it is important for them to tell the truth to their patients. Truth: â€Å"conformity to fact or reality† according to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, does not appear in society to be that concrete. From childhood we were taught about the importance of truth with the consequences of our actions meted out if we were not truthful. Often our understanding of this subject was not the same as †Johnny’s† next door and we were left with this confusing amalgamation, forced to gage for ourselves on a situational basis how much was lie or truth in any given statement. Society’s opinion on this topic therefore is varied based on our own individual ethics developed over the years. Doctors, held to far higher standards than the rest of us, are forced to play ‘God’ with their patients, although the Uncertainty principle â€Å"suggests that there is no certainty in health care, therefore no ‘absolute truth’ to reveal. ‘Truth-telling can never be achieved. † (Tuckett, 2004, p. 500). In his determinations a doctor â€Å"must be careful to distinguish the notion of ‘truth’ as ‘the way things really are’ (so-called objective truth) from that of ‘truth’ as ‘the way a person believes things to be’. † (Tuckett, 2004, p. 508). TRUTH-TELLING 3 The Importance of Truth-Telling The American College of Physicians Ethics Manual influences decision making by doctors via principles. Although these principles â€Å"do not provide ordered rules, these principles can help doctors and other health care workers to make decisions when reflecting on moral issues that arise at work. † (Gillon, 1994, p. 184). Respect for Autonomy, one of these guiding principles used in most of the decisions with long term disabilities or terminal illnesses, acknowledges a â€Å"persons right to hold views, to make choices† and to take actions†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Shahidi, 2010, p. 590). Medical Ethics are in place to create a balance between all versions of ‘truth’ and provide structure for the relationship between doctor and patient, as well to provide guidance for the doctor and protect the rights of the patient. Because truth is not black and white like we sometimes wish to think the doctor can use this framework to foster an honest and trusting relationship with his patients. The consequences can be long lasting if the truth is not told to patients in a timely fashion or in its entirety. Illness can get away from you quickly with no chance to turn back the clock or simply the chance to make amends to facilitate a peaceful exit. Doctors deceiving patients, whether by omission or by using semi-truths, erodes trust in that relationship (Tuckett, 2004). By not being honest with a patient diagnosis they may cause the patient undue hardship as according to Mitchell, †Patients with false information or no information about their condition may unintentionally mislead other physicians involved in their treatment† (Shahidi, 2010, p. 592). Lying also strips â€Å"the patient’s ability to be autonomous and fails to show respect for persons. † While â€Å"truth-telling maintains the competent patient’s status as an adult†. (Tuckett, 2004, p. 505). TRUTH-TELLING 4 The Importance of Truth-Telling. Maintaining the patients welfare should be the primary goal of a doctor while he is determining exactly just how to address the truth-telling. One of the principles under medical ethics is ’above all do no harm’. The long lasting consequences of choosing which ‘truth’ to tell could call into question this principle. We have determined that truth is not as cut and dried as we would like it to be, but there still needs to be a focus on honesty, truthfulness, and full disclosure with doctors and their patients. Our health is a joint effort, and we need to be able to rely on and trust our medical professionals to let us know what really is happening. I believe that the least amount of harm in the long run would be in telling the complete truth, however I understand that we are all different and our situations are different and it then stands to reason that the solutions will all be different as well. By keeping in mind the who, what, where, when, why and even how, I think the acquisition of this information would give the best answer to each truth-telling situation.

LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) Technology

LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) Technology LIDAR (Light detection and ranging) is a method of determining the topography of the surface using a laser. These pulses generated are recorded which provide precise three-dimensional information about the surface. Today various platform LIDAR is available in the market and those are chosen based on the project requirement. E.g. terrestrial LIDAR, which is fixed in ground, airborne LIDAR, which is placed on a flying platform like an airplane or helicopter and space borne Laser which is fixed on satellite platforms. Two types of LIDAR are available, topographic, and bathymetric. Topographic LIDAR use near infrared laser, whereas bathymetric LIDAR us green light which penetrate the water. The use of airborne laser (LIDAR) for measuring the depth of near shore coastal waters and lakes from an aircraft is getting more popular in surveying industry. The demand for faster and cheaper coastline survey can be replaced by using airborne LIDAR technology. The Airborne LIDAR bathymetry was successfully tested by US, Canada, and Australia in the early 1970s. The system built by Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) in 1986, the LARSEN 500 system was the first operational airborne LIDAR bathymetry system. Airborne LIDAR bathymetry has proven to be more accurate, cost effective, efficient, and fast method of collecting shallow water bathymetry data than the sonar technology which is less efficient and hard to operate in many cases. The airborne laser bathymetry involves the pulse laser transmitter which emits green and infrared beams. The wave length of green laser is 532 nm which can penetrate coastal water with less attenuation and can be used for coastal bottom detection. The infrared (IR) cannot penetrate the water and can be used for sea surface detection. The bathymetry sensors consist of four major components, the GPS receiver which records the aircraft position, the inertial measurement unit (IMU) which gives the roll, pitch and yaw of the aircraft, the laser scanner which emits the signal and the receiver sensor which read the returning signal. The LIDAR system can record the accurate measurements by knowing the position and orientation of all these components. These sensors c an measure thousands of points per seconds The transmitted laser pulse from the aircraft partially reflected from the water surface and the seabed back to the receiver. By recording the time taken from the laser to reach the surface and back to the receiver and speed of the light in air and in water, the distance to the sea surface and sea bed can be calculated. This information is used to calculate the water depth. The bathymetric LIDAR system also includes RGB cameras which acquire better color photo which is used as a quality check tool in identification of bathymetric features and aids to navigation. Airborne LIDAR bathymetry has various  Ã‚   advantages over other traditional water borne surveying techniques. It has tendency to perform survey quickly, efficiently within small operational window. This can cover a very large area and all those areas where it would be difficult to survey using traditional surveying methods. The ability of the airborne LIDAR to operate from the air gives the surveyor a flexibility that sur vey vessel surveyors could hardly imagine. The modern airborne LIDAR now comes with oblique digital photography which can be merged with point cloud. These georeferenced images are used during the validation process. There are numerous limitations of an airborne LIDAR bathymetry system. The maximum depth the laser can penetrate depends on the clarity of water. The maximum surveyable depths depend on several systems used and the environment condition. The green laser penetrates and travel maximum depth if the water is clear water. The maximum surveyable depths ranges from 50 meters in clean water to less than 10 meters in murky water. The use of airborne LIDAR system is not appropriate for small target detection. The spatial resolution obtained from the airborne LIDAR is not as good as for modern high frequency sonar. Small target detection using airborne LIDAR may be possible by significantly increasing the survey density which becomes more expensive. Various environmental factors like rain, fog, clouds, high winds, high waves, etc. can cause problem when carrying airborne LIDAR survey. Surveying in rain cause laser beam to backscatter to the receiver bye raindrops. The backscatter signal by the mist, fog can result in false surface heights.   Airborne survey in high wind can pose a danger when flying near a coastal mountain and cause changes in survey density. Airborne LIDAR bathymetry technology can be used for many applications like charting, environmental mapping, flood plain and coastal mapping etc. https://www.gim-international.com/content/article/technology-in-focus-bathymetric-LIDAR-2

Ethical Business Practices :: Business Ethics

Ethical business practices include assuring that the highest legal and moral standards are observed in your relationships with the people in your business community. This includes the most important person in your business, your customer. Short term profit at the cost of losing a customer is long term death for your business. A reputation for ethical decisions builds trust in your business among business associates and suppliers. Strong supplier relationships are critical to a successful business. Consider the problems you might have if you could not supply what the customer needs...at the time that they need it. The entrepreneur is the role model for employees. If your behavior includes lying to customers, taking money out of the cash register, or taking home some of the inventory or supplies, you cannot be surprised if your employees follow your lead. Your family members may see the business as their own and take things that really belong to the business. Employees may see this as being dishonest, or as a conflict with their needs for a raise in pay. The community expects your business to operate in an ethical manner that enhances the image of the community as a whole. If you are located in a mall, for example, your code of ethics will help or hinder customer traffic for the other businesses too. A reputation for telling customers anything they want to hear, regardless of the truth, eventually hurts your business and other businesses around you. It usually isn't illegal to lie to customers, but it isn't good business. Ethical behavior is merely making good business decisions based on an established "code of ethics". Entrepreneurs should establish a written code of ethics that can serve as a framework for decisions to be made by the entrepreneur as well as the employees. In developing this code of ethics you should consider the following items: 1. Identify your general principles that would lead to fair business practices. 2. Check with your industry association for basic standards to review 3. Allow for the fact that ethical questions do not always have a unique, faultless answer. 4. Write out specific statements that will assist you and others in making day-to-day ethical decisions. 5. Apply your code of ethics to a written policy and procedure manual identifying the major rules for operating your business. 6. Train your employees (and family members) to make ethical decisions about the business.

Negotiation and Culture: Case Study

Culture and Negotiations Why do Japanese negotiators behave in the manner they do? How does culture affect negotiating behavior and outcomes? MASTER THESIS Author’s name: Patrycja J. Krause Student’s number: 258891 Academic advisor: Soren O. Hilligsoe Faculty of English Aarhus School of Business May 2006 I would like to thank my Mom, Barbara, for her understanding, encouragement and eternal support, as well as my advisor, Soren O. Hilligsoe, for his academic help, advice and faith in me keeping my deadline! Patrycja J.Krause Aarhus, May 2006 In loving memory of my Dad, Wladyslaw, for showing me the world – this one is for you. 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 7. 8. INTRODUCTION METHOD WHY JAPAN? DEFINITION OF CULTURE AND VALUES HOFSTEDE’S VALUE DIMENSIONS POWER DISTANCE UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE COLLECTIVISM VERSUS INDIVIDUALISM FEMININITY VERSUS MASCULINITY LONG-TERM VERSUS SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES ON HOFSTEDE EDWARD HALL CULTU RAL DIMENSIONS 4 6 7 9 11 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 19 20 21 23 25 26 28 30 40 43 47 59 61 64 65 . 1 CONFUCIANISM 8. 2 IE 8. 3 THE WA-CONCEPT 8. 4 ISOLATION 8. 5 UNIQUENESS 8. 6 WESTERN INFLUENCE 9. 9. 1 10. 11. 12. 13. JAPANESE NEGOTIATOR THE NANIWABUSHI STRATEGY BRETT & USUNIER CASE STUDIES CONCLUSION SUMMARY REFERENCES APPENDIX 3 1. Introduction This paper wants to provide a culture-based explanation, examination and analysis as to why Japanese negotiators behave in the manner they do in negotiation, as well as how culture affects negotiations and their outcome.The paper is, due to the focus on cultural differences, solely dealing with international negotiations. This paper is focusing on the cultural aspect of the negotiation, which is only one piece of a larger puzzle, but it is a crucial and decisive piece. It is now widely accepted that culture indeed has an affect on negotiation and its outcome, which reflects a given culture and the underlying values and beliefs that are central and fundamental in a culture.The culture can be defined as being both behavior, a meaning system and a communication style, and there is a link between the dominant world view present in a given culture (Japan), and the negotiating style that appears to be characteristic of that culture. This paper is not to depict a stereotypical image of a Japanese negotiator, but merely to show that culture indeed does influence the behavior, negotiations and their outcome. It should also be kept in mind that (a) the negotiation is a universal process, and (b) there are a number of contextual factors that too have an impact on the cultures’ impact on the negotiation – e. . the nature of the other party (member of an in-group or an out-group), and the individual difference, although a member of a collectivistic culture tends to suppress his personality and individuality in order to maintain group harmony. This paper is to focus on a Japanese negotiator, who is dominated by his cultu ral values, and his interaction (in a negotiation) with a member of an out-group (foreigners and people that do not have a long term relationship with the Japanese negotiator), and a member of the in-group (fellow Japanese with established long-term relationships).Several studies and surveys (e. g. Brett and Usunier) have shown that culture does affect the negotiation process and the final agreement or outcome of the negotiations. Nevertheless, while there have been a number of studies that have explored the behavior of negotiators from different cultures, only very few have dealt with the underlying reasons – why people from a given culture behave the way they do.Additionally, most theorists and scholars have relied on the value dimensions index, depicting the differences between cultures, developed by Hofstede between 1968 and 1973. Hofstede’s research has undoubtedly helped people understand other cultures, but there is also a need to understand the underlying reaso ns why people from a given culture behave the way they do – the so-called mental frames that are shaping the behavior of Japanese negotiators. 4Otherwise, negotiators tend to create their own interpretation of the behavior of the other party, which without the necessarily cultural knowledge may lead to prejudices and ultimately lack of trust (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 125-160). For instance, trust in individualistic societies is based on the fact that a promise that will be implemented on a specific time or day, whereas trust in collectivistic societies is based on emotions and relationships as well as on sacrifice.The other party may thus think the Japanese negotiator do not want to reach an agreement within a week because they are difficult and want to sabotage the negotiation or untrustworthy, rather than the Japanese are relationship oriented rather than task oriented. They thus want to establish a relationship before they reach an agreement and need more time in order to re ach an agreement because it is based on group consensus. The paper starts by giving a definition and an analysis of culture and values in general in order to delimit and define the cultural framework that is the fundament of this paper.The culture and values of Japan are then to be described and discussed in order to show which cultural factors and dimensions in Japan determine and influence the Japanese negotiator, as well as serving as a an introductory guide to Japanese culture and society – hopefully, the guide will present both useful and interesting knowledge to all those interested in cross-cultural negotiations and intercultural communication. Two frameworks are presented and used in order to gain deeper behavior knowledge of culture: Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension and Hall’s Silent Language and Beyond Culture.Next, the paper discusses and analyzes Japanese negotiating styles and techniques 1 , and how they are influenced by the Japanese culture and cultu ral values. For this purpose, different aspects of verbal and non-verbal communication are to be discussed as well, and the paper is to analyze the meaning of these aspects in the context of negotiations. Finally, the paper is to take a look at two real life cases involving Japanese negotiators in order to illustrate behavior patterns and negotiation styles and techniques of Japanese negotiators.The author of this paper would argue that in an increasingly interdependent world, the ability to negotiate successfully is an important skill, and understanding the mindset and the behavior of the Japanese negotiator is essential and fundamental for successful negotiations. 1 Mainly focusing on the male negotiator, being the dominant player during negotiations in Japan. 5 Being aware of the reasons why the Japanese negotiator behaves and communicates they way he does, one may be less surprised or shocked by Japanese behavior, and may be better at focusing on, and handling, the negotiation i tself.Knowledge of culture and cultural values of the other party works as an uncertainty avoidance in negotiations, and helps building trust in stead of tarnishing it with prejudices, which ultimately leads to a dead lock or even break downs. 2. Method The research concerning this paper was mainly carried out in the form of a desktop study method – all the data were carefully collected mainly from secondary sources, such as, studies, surveys, as well as statistics and articles.The paper is culture-based, and the chosen data depict this approach – all the scholars referred quoted and referred to are specializing in culture, intercultural communication, as well negotiating. In order to give a general overview of the Japanese culture as well as to determine what type of values are predominant in Japan, the paper refers to and applies Hofstede’s five value dimensions index – masculinity/femininity, collectivism/individualism, uncertainty avoidance, long-term versus short-term orientation and power distance.Additionally, the paper is also to refer to Hall’s theory on the difference between high and low context and cultures, and the concept of Chronemics, in order to identify the Japanese culture and how these differences and concepts influence a negotiation. Also, several historical concepts (e. g. the ie-concept, geographical isolation, Western influence, etc. and Confucianism, which is one of the cultural dimensions that have influenced the Japanese worldview, are to be described and discussed in order to explain why the Japanese negotiator behaves in the manner he does, and how the historical events and Confucianism affect the culture and the behavior in Japan. Hofstede’s work has been criticized over the years for being incomplete, static and too narrow. The paper is thus to discuss the critical perspectives on Hofstede in order to show that the author has been aware of the possible disadvantages, when using Hofstedeâ €™s five value dimensions index. Additionally, Brett and Usunier are also discussed in the paper when dealing with the connection and interaction between culture and negotiation – how does culture affect negotiations. Both Brett and Usunier argue that in order to reach an agreement, the negotiators need to be aware of each other’s culture and cultural values, as well as understand the reasons for the way the other part behaves during negotiations. Finally, two real life case studies have been analyzed in order to depict the culture-based theory described and discussed in this paper.The reason for using case studies was to give a more holistic portrayal of a Japanese negotiator, while analyzing the contents by seeking patterns and themes in the data while referring them to the culture-based theory (e. g. culture and values and how they influence ones behavior and negotiating style) in this paper. Additionally, using case study is the best way to obtain data for anal ysis when one is not able to make actual field studies by observing Japanese negotiators in action. Both case studies depict the Japanese negotiators interacting and negotiating with members of an out-group, the Americans.This is due to the fact that the author of this paper would argue that when observing two different cultures one observes reactions that may not be present when both parties had the same cultural background, which would ultimately result in a smoother negotiation. Additionally, this paper deals with international negotiations and the importance of knowing and understanding the other party’s culture and cultural values. The case studies are thus used to highlight the focus of the paper – why Japanese negotiators behave in the manner they do in a negotiation, as well as how culture affects negotiations and their outcome. . Why Japan? The author of this paper has chosen to focus on Japan and the cultural values and behavior of a Japanese negotiator due t o the following factor: Japan’s consumer market. In order to know how attractive Japan is as a business associate, and thus how important it is to know the Japanese culture and negation behavior in order to win the market and succeed in the country, a brief description of the Japanese consumer market will now be given – its size, its consumers and its products.Japan is a closely populated and highly urbanized country with one of the most powerful economies in the world, currently amongst the top three economies in the world, although still rebounding from the collapse of the country’s economy back in 1991. 7 According to the Statistical Handbook of Japan, consumption expenditures increased by approximately 0. 5 percent in real terms due to such factors as the indication of an economic recovery and improvement in consumer sentiment (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005 2 : 158).Statistical Handbook of Japan states: As of May 2005, the excellent performance of the corporate sector is continuing, and overall business is recovering gradually. Recovery of employment is lagging slightly. However, the unemployment rate, which was 5. 4 percent in 2002, recovered to 4. 4 percent in May 2005. As seen in this state of affairs, there is some improvement, although harshness still remains. The growth of consumer spending, which slowed between the end of 2004 and early 2005, is showing signs of a resurgence (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005: 33 3 ).Due to its geographical nature, Japan cannot supply all its needs for raw material for energy and fuel, metal products, and foods from indigenous resources, and is thus dependent on overseas supplies. In 1996 Japan had an overall deficit in food of about 30 % – in 2003 it was approximately 40 %. According to Statistical Handbook of Japan, the present food self-sufficiency rate of Japan is the lowest among major industrialized countries, so Japan has thus become the world's largest food importing natio n (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005: 69 4 ).This makes Japan an attractive market with its 127 million consumers, where women are a majority and retired people outnumber the youngest age strata, and are thus the most significant consumer group (Reischauer, 1995: 25). Additionally, the Japanese are well educated and households have a fairly disposable income, in which the majority of it is spent on food. According to the 2004 Family Income and Expenditure Survey, monthly consumption expenditure averaged ? 304,203per household with two or more family members excluding single-member households (Statistical Handbook of Japan, 2005: 158 5 ). Appendix 1 – Household 3 Appendix 2 – Economy 4 Appendix 3 – Agriculture 5 Appendix 1 – Household 8 Japan is the world’s largest net importer of agriculture and food products (in 2003 alone, the country has imported over 60 % of its food supplies), amounting to US$ 40 to 50 billion annually. Thus, the Japanese fo od market is powerful but demanding (Agri-Food Country Profile: Japan, 2003: 1 6 ). Needless to say, it is a relatively difficult task to target a foreign, and rather remote, market as it may require extra resources and special cultural knowledge.Therefore, it is valuable to study the values and the culture of Japan before entering the country’s market in order to promote and sell a product. 4. Definition of Culture and Values This chapter is to describe and define culture and values in general in order to delimit and define the cultural framework that is the fundament of this paper. At first glace, the human race behaves more or less alike – we smile, laugh and cry. We talk, gesticulate, and perform actions. Nevertheless, our behavior is influenced by our cultures – through the norms and rules existing in our society.Our cultures also affect our communication through the individual characteristics we learn when we are socialized into our culture. In short, our culture provides us with a system of knowledge that generally allows us to know how to communicate with other members of our culture and how to interpret their behavior. Culture can thus be defined as an underlying framework that guides an individual’s perceptions of observed events and personal interaction, and thus directly influences what people will do and what they can do. In short, knowing and using culture and its many dimensions is a must know negotiating with foreigners.Culture includes all learned behavior and values that are transmitted through shared experience to an individual in a society. According to Sir Edward Taylor, a classic definition of culture is as follows: â€Å"Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by (individuals as members) of society. † (Taylor, 1871: 1). Culture is thus everything that people have (objects), think (ideas, values, attitudes, b eliefs), and do (behavior) as members of a particular society.Culture is made up of material objects, ideas, values and attitudes, and behavior patterns (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 14-19, Yokochi & Hall, 2001: 193). 6 Appendix 4 9 Additionally, according to Hall, a culture must have the following three characteristics: 1. It is learned; people over time transmit the culture of their group from one generation to another 2. It is interrelated; one part of a particular culture is deeply interconnected with another part – e. g. religion with marriage, or education and work with social status 3.It is shared; the basic concepts of a particular culture are accepted by most members of the group. In other words, culture develops through recurrent social relationships that form a pattern that is eventually adapted by members of the entire group, and transmitted to new members through the process of learning and interacting with ones environment and other members of ones culture (Hall, 1977 : 16). The most fundamental aspect of our culture consists of values. Values are acquired in the family, during the first years of our lives, further developed and confirmed in school, and einforced in work organizations and in life within a national cultural environment. Values determine what we consider to be good and evil, beautiful and ugly, natural and unnatural, rational and irrational, normal and abnormal (Ghauri & Usunier, 2003: 97-100, 137-138). Values too are a major influence and determination factor when it comes to behavior and communication during a negotiation. Values are defined by the particular culture, hence the importance of understanding the value concept and culture when negotiating with foreigners. One of the early U. S. esearches of values, Milton Rokeach, defines a value 7 as: â€Å"An enduring belief that one mode of conduct or end-state of existence is preferable to an opposing mode of conduct or end-state of existence†. According to Rokeach values are thus both guiding principles in life, and preferences for one mode of behavior over another. Values are depicted in the general norms of a culture (what is right and wrong), and they are depicted in what we want and what we consider important for ourselves. Values are also among the very first things children learn – implicitly – by observing the community, kyodotai in Japanese (e. . parents and people around them). 7 An attitude, on the other hand, refers to an organization of several beliefs around a specific object or situation. 10 According to the American development psychologist, Daniel Yankelovich, most important traditional values will remain firm and constant over time, and are thus stable and enduring through generations (de Mooij, 2004: 22-26). It is thus essential to remember that the intercultural communication and negotiation are never far from cultural considerations (Roth, 1982: 6).This assumption was mistakenly conceived from the converging technol ogy and the spread of the English language that was taking place globally (de Mooij, 2004: 1-18). One has to remember though that globalization is not an entirely new phenomenon. In fact, some would argue that it even dates back at least to the Marco Polo’s voyages in the 1300s, and the fundamental values of the many different cultures have not changed significantly since then. People still live in the local. We define ourselves by our differences.It’s called identity – self, family and nation† (de Mooij, 2004: 16). Human behavior is learned and growing up in a culture, a person is taught values, perceptions, wants and how to behave from the family and other institutions (Lasserre & Schutte, 1995: 49-59). For instance, in today’s Japan, group harmony is still dominating the nation's behavior, seniority by age is still respected, and promotion in most public and private organizations is based on the length of service, which is usually connected to th e age of the individual.Reciprocity is emphasized in social relations in order to maintain a long-lasting relationship. Values and traditions do not easily change in a society. 5. Hofstede’s value dimensions This chapter is to describe and discuss the Dutch professor, Geert Hofstede’s, value dimension index, which is based on the first international survey taking place in IBM in more than 50 different countries from 1968 to 1973 (Hofstede, 2001: xv), mainly focusing on Japan in order to determine what type of culture is present in Japan.According to Hofstede, the way people perceive and interpret their world varies along five dimensions, and are as follows: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, collectivism/individualism, and masculinity/femininity. Finally, Hofstede added a fifth dimension called long-term orientation in life versus short-term orientation. Each of the countries in Hofstede’s study has been ranked according to their scores in each dimension. 11 According to Hofstede a dimension is: â€Å"†¦an aspect of a culture that can be measured relative to other cultures. Additionally, Hofstede defines culture as: â€Å"The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another† (Hofstede, 2001: 9). 5. 1 Power distance Power distance refers to the inequality among people, which the population of a country considers acceptable. There is inequality in all societies, and thus there will always be some people who have more power than other. In some cultures power is concentrated among a few people at the top, who make all the decisions, whereas people at the other end simply carry out these decisions.Such cultures are associated with high power distance levels. In other cultures, on the other hand, power is widely spread and relations among people are more equal. These are low power distance cultures. (Hofstede, 1991: 23) According to Hofstede’s value dimensio ns Japan scores 55 points – placing it in the middle of the index (Hofstede, 1991: 26). In countries which have a high power distance employees dislike to disagree with their superiors. Superiors are seen as paternalistic, and subordinates expect to be told what to do.There is also a large emotional distance between subordinates and their superiors (Hofstede, 1991: 28). When it comes to family and school, parents will teach children to be obedient and the children will treat their parents with respect, just as students will treat their teachers with respect. In high power distance societies inequalities among people are in general expected and desired (Hofstede, 1991: 37). In Japan this inequality is especially expressed in the oya-ko concept (literally meaning parentchild), which originally refers to a leader or a work group and its members.As work and home began to separate during the beginning of modern period of Japan oya and ko began to have a strictly kinship meaning â €“ with no economic aspect – such as it had until the Tokugawa period where the ie (extended household) was more than just a family or a kinship unit – it was an economic organization in which each of its members (not always related to each other by blood or marriage) contributed towards it (Harumi, 1971: 38-39). 12 5. 2 Uncertainty avoidance Uncertainty avoidance describes the need or lack of need a society has towards written or unwritten rules and how it deals with structured or unstructured situations.At the organizational level, uncertainty avoidance is related to factors such as rituals, rules, and employment stability. People in less structured cultures face the future without experiencing unnecessarily stress. The uncertainty associated with future events does not result in risk avoidance behavior. On the other hand, in cultures where people experience stress in dealing with future events, high uncertainty avoidance cultures, various steps are taken to cope with the impact of uncertainty: e. g. long-time planning in order to minimize the anxiety associated with future events.Japan scores 92 points and is seen as a country with high uncertainty avoidance, where there are many regulations and a strong etiquette in order to avoid uncertainty (Hofstede, 1991: 113). 5. 3 Collectivism versus individualism According to several researchers within the field of culture, individualism versus collectivism is one of the basic pattern variants that determine human action. It is a pattern that is visible in every day life, as well as being present in the interaction between people. Individualism indicates the degree to which people of a particular culture learn to act as individuals rather than as members of a group.It is essential to remember that all people and cultures posses both individual and collective traits, but at the same time one of these traits is always more dominant or more visible than the other (Samovar & Porter, 2004: 59). A typica l collectivistic culture distinguishes between in-groups (relatives, clans, and organizations), and out-groups (the rest of ones network). Ones’ in-groups can be defined as ones’ extended family – like the one found in the Japanese society throughout the history; also known as ie.People from individualistic cultures are self-centered, and feel relatively little need for dependency on others. They seek the fulfillment of their own goals over the goals over the groups. Additionally, people from individualistic cultures are competitive, and show little loyalty to the organizations for which they work. 13 People from collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, have a group mentality (with e. g. joint decision making), where they suppress and subordinate their goals for the sake of the group. They are interdependent on each other and seek mutual accommodation in order to maintain group harmony.People in a collectivistic culture expect that their in-groups will take c are of them and in return they owe the in-groups a great deal of loyalty and submission (Samovar & Porter, 2004: 61). Children who grow up in collectivistic societies are expected to show lifelong loyalty to the group (Hofstede, 1991: 50-51). In short, individualism versus collectivism, deals with the degree to which one thinks in terms of I versus we – either ties between individuals are loose or people are part of cohesive ingroup throughout their lives (Samovar & Porter, 2004: 61).Contrary to the stereotype, Japan actually ranks in the middle of this dimension, with 46 points – but is still defined as being a collectivistic culture (Hofstede, 1991: 67). An interesting theory stated by Kumon Shumpei, a Japanese anthropologist, characterizes Japanese as contextualists rather than collectivists, as is the case in both Hofstede and Hall’s studies. A contextualist retains a personal identity, which the collectivist probably loses, but this personal identity is vir tually inseparable from the contextual identity.Thus, the individual changes, depending on the context he is in or the people he is with. One of the arguments Kumon makes to support the theory is that most Japanese belong to in-groups in order to reach a self-realization. But one could argue that even in these â€Å"self-realization in-groups† the members strive to maintain harmony and act for the benefit of the group, making them predominantly collectivistic (Hendry, 1998: 22-39). 5. 4 Femininity versus masculinity One of the main differentiations between masculine and feminine cultures is how gender roles are distributed in cultures.Thus masculine cultures create clearly distinct gender roles; men are supposed to be self-confident, tough and concerned with the material aspect of life, whereas women are expected to be modest, tender and dealing with the quality of life. Thus according to Hofstede Japan is a highly masculine culture (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 77), whereas in mas culine countries both people are taught to be ambitious and competitive. It should be mentioned though that females’ ambitions are sometimes directed towards the achievements of their brothers and later in life their husbands and sons.According to Hofstede’s index, Japan is one of the more masculine countries, scoring 95 – ranking as number one (Hofstede, 1991: 96). 14 5. 5 Long-term versus short-term orientation Michael Harris Bond originally found the fifth dimension in the answers of student samples from 23 countries in 1985 in Hong Kong, and later it was incorporated by Hofstede in his value dimensions index. The reason why this dimension was not found in the original IBM data was due to the fact that the IBM questionnaires were composed from the minds and values of Westerners – whereas the fifth dimension was composed from the minds and values of Easterners.The fifth dimension, nevertheless, is present across all 23 cultures taking part in the survey (Hofstede, 2001: 71-73). Long-term orientation, also known as Confucian Dynamism, is composed of the following values: being determinate or firm, prudent, arranging relationships by status as well valuing interpersonal relationships, as well as having a sense of shame, saving ones face, having a great deal of respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favors and gifts.Japan ranks as number 4 on the Long-term Orientation Index Values, with 80 points (Hofstede, 2001: 351356). 6. Critical perspectives on Hofstede There has been a great deal of critique of Hofstede’s value dimensions when dealing with culture analyses, which this paper will shortly discuss – simply to show that the author of this paper is indeed aware of the advantages as well as disadvantages when using Hofstede’s value dimensions in order to analyze a specific culture.One of the most recent Danish critical analyses was performed by Susan Baca at the Aalborg University where it is being argued that Hofstede’s IBM-based rapport which is supposed to depict characteristic traits visible in cultures cannot be used simply due to the fact that IBMemployees from a specific culture cannot be representative for the culture in question as a whole (Baca, 1999: 11). One can argue that since Hofstede published his IBM-based rapport several other culture-analytics (e. . Triandis, Brislin and Bond) have made further analyses, which do not exactly contradict Hofstede’s value dimensions. These analyses both support Hofstede’s dimensions, as well as having reached the same conclusions. One can also add that since the amount of IBM-employees amounted to hundreds of thousands it is only logical to conclude that one did find enough traits, which can be viewed as characteristic for the cultures in question. 15Another aspect of Hofstede’s survey-based value dimensions, which is being criticized is the fact that his model is static, and can ultimately not be u sed because surely the cultures in question studied by Hofstede must have changed over the time since he performed the survey from 1968 to 1973. This is one of the reasons why the paper is looking at the cultural and historical influence on Japanese behavior over time – in order to see if Hofstede’s value dimensions are still valid in the Japanese culture that this paper is dealing with.Susan Baca is also criticizing Hofstede for actually separating a given culture into several, isolated dimensions, strongly supported by Turner and Trompenaars. For instance, Hofstede is depicting the American culture as highly individualistic, but does not describe the interaction people have with each other among the different in-groups – and if one can categorize this interaction as being highly individualistic as well or not (Baca, 1999: 15). To this, the author of this paper can only say, using Hofstede’s own words that this paper’s main task is to study cultur es, and not individuals. (Hofstede, 2001: 15).Additionally, in order to back up Hofstede’s theory, this paper is also to refer to Hall’s theory on Chronemics as well as a more general cultural analysis of the Japanese culture. 7. Edward Hall Another cultural framework used in this paper in order to gain deeper behavior knowledge of the Japanese culture, is Hall’s concept of Chronemics as well as his theory on low-context and high-context cultures. According to the American sociologist, Edward Hall, the world is divided into monochronic and polychronic culture, also known as the concept of Chronemics. It is a nonverbal behavior that speaks to how people use time to communicate.Lateness, for example, can communicate messages of power (waiting in the doctor's office), attraction (arriving early for the first date), or identity (being â€Å"fashionably late†). Chronemics, like all other nonverbal behavior is culturally based. Different cultures have different rules governing the use and meaning of time. Hall's distinction between monochronic and polychronic cultures highlight the different ends of the cultural spectrums of how culture's view time. A culture’s conception of time can thus be examined from Hall’s monochronic and polychronic classifications. 16Monochronic cultures see time as a measurable, quantifiable entity, which is linear. Thus, being punctual, scheduling, planning tasks to match time frames are valued behaviors. In the monochronic culture time becomes a concrete and segmented reality where only one thing can be done at a time without interruptions. Additionally, in negotiations, monochronic people’s main focus is on goals, tasks and results, rather than relationships. Polychronic cultures, on the other hand, tend to view time as nonlinear – almost as a general guideline, which has no substance or structure. There is thus a circular or cyclical quality to time.Punctuality and scheduling is do ne but rarely found in monochronic cultures. Additionally, people from polychronic cultures are able to do many things at one time, and do not mind interruptions. Because time is not linear or segmented, matching specific activities with specific time frames is not done. Times and activities are fluid. Finally, in negotiations, polychronic people’s main focus is on relationships and people. Japan belongs to the polychronic cultures. In a negotiation context, the Japanese want to get to know their business counterparts, and they feel that the best way to do so is by engaging in long conversations with them.This reflects the fact that the Japanese culture is long-term relationship oriented. Negotiators from polychronic cultures are thus relationship-focused. Monochronic and polychronic time orientations tend to produce two other significant cultural phenomena: the difference between high and low context cultures, which refers to the fact that when people communicate, they take for granted how much the listener knows about the subject under discussion. Negotiators from monochronic cultures are thus deal-focused. Although Edward T.Hall classified Japan as a polychronic culture, Gesteland argues that the Japanese business people expect strict punctuality in meetings and close adherence to schedule. Punctuality in Japan might be ruled by the high level of uncertainty avoidance and the maintenance of group harmony, which is essential for the Japanese culture. Hall also discusses and distinguishes between high-context and low-context cultures. He views meaning and context as being interconnected. The difference between high and low context cultures depends on how much meaning is found in the context versus in the code. 17One can think of â€Å"code† as the message, and of â€Å"context† as setting or circumstance, including the people, in which the message appeared. In low-context communication, the listener knows very little and must be informed about every detail. In high-context communication, on the other hand, the listener is already ‘contexted', and does not need to be given much background information. According to Hall, low-context cultures, such as the American culture, tend to place more meaning in the language code and very little meaning in the context. Communication tends thus to be specific, explicit, and analytical.In analyzing messages, low-context cultures tend to focus on â€Å"what was said† and give literal meaning to each word. Low-context cultures tend to use a direct verbal-expression style in which the situation context is not emphasized, important information is usually carried in explicit verbal messages, people tend to directly express their opinions and intend to persuade others to accept their viewpoints, and self-expression, verbal fluency, and eloquent speech are valued. In high-context cultures, on the other hand, such as the Japanese culture, meaning is embedded more in the conte xt rather than the code.In this case, â€Å"what was said† cannot be understood by the words alone – one has to look at who said it, when they said it, where they said it, how they said it, the circumstances in which they said it, and to whom they said it. Each variable will thus help define the meaning of â€Å"what was said. † Hall states: People raised in high-context systems expect more from others than do the participants in lowcontext systems. When talking about something that they have on their minds, a high-context individual will expect his interlocutor to know what's bothering him, so that he doesn't have to be specific.The result is that he will talk around and around the point, in effect putting all the pieces in place except the crucial one (Hall: 1977, p. 98). This is also the case with the behavior of a Japanese negotiator – he expects the other party to know exactly what he wants to obtain from the negotiation, and what type of a deal he i s looking for. 18 In short, the difference between high and low context cultures depends on how much meaning is found in the context versus in the code, or, in high-context exchanges, much of the â€Å"burden of meaning† appears to fall on the listener.In low context cultures, the burden appears to fall on the speaker to accurately and thoroughly convey the meaning in her spoken or written message. Conclusively, according to Hall, Japan and the Japanese negotiator belongs to the polychronic culture type. Thus, in a negotiation context, the Japanese want to get to know their business counterparts by engaging in long conversations with them. This again reflects the fact that the Japanese culture is long-term relationship oriented. Additionally, Japan is a high-context culture, where meaning is embedded more in the context rather than the code.Japanese negotiators expect thus more from the other party and when something is bothering them, they tend to express this indirectly (fo r instance by using silence) (Cohen, 1997: 159-160, Rowland, 1993: 68-69). Finally, although Edward T. Hall classified Japan as a polychronic culture, Gesteland argues that the Japanese business people expect strict punctuality in meetings and close adherence to schedule. Punctuality in Japan might be ruled by the high level of uncertainty avoidance and the maintenance of group harmony, which is essential for the Japanese culture (Hall, 1973, 1977, Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 69, 179-180). 8.Cultural Dimensions This chapter is to discuss and analyze which values and cultural dimensions that are present and dominant in Japan in order to understand the behavior of a Japanese negotiator: Confucianism Ie The WA-concept Isolation – geographical & political Uniqueness Western influence 19 8. 1 Confucianism The cultural perspective has for some time provided the dominant paradigm in comparative studies management, organization and cross-cultural negotiations. Even before Hofstede’ s survey on cultural values, international studies of organization generally regarded culture as the key explanatory factor for cross-cultural differences.One of the most important influences on Japanese everyday life, culture and behavior was, and still is, Confucianism, which entered Japan via Korea in the 5th Century. Japanese culture and behavior reflect the values of collectivism and harmony, and are highly inspired and influenced by Confucianism. Confucius (Kongzi, 551-479 BC) writing around the time of Socrates but a while before Jesus Christ, based his ideas on absolute respect for tradition, on a strict hierarchy of primary relationships between family-members, and then again between the people and their rulers.His philosophy was intended to guide people’s everyday life, to regulate social behavior, and it established a mode of thought and habit that has persisted and that blended well with other belief systems that were and still are present in Japan, such as Buddhi sm and Shinto. The central concepts of the Confucian ethic were summarized in the Three Cardinal Relationships: ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife), five constant virtues (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity, and the doctrine of the mean (harmony). In this teaching, emphasis is on the obligation of the inferior to the superior.The assumption is that society needs a hierarchical order in which every individual has his or her own place, and the peace and harmony prevail if everyone follows the proper manner of conduct. These concepts are the fundament of the Japanese society to this very day. Also, the Confucian teachings emphasized uprightness, righteousness, loyalty, sincerity, reciprocity, and benevolence as personal virtues. The principle of filial piety was especially useful during the Tokugawa period when family was the social and economic unity of society. Occupation and property belonged to the family.Continuation of the fa mily line was thus a primary concern because it was a necessity for keeping ones position and income. Individuals often sacrificed their happiness to ensure survival of the family. After Japan was centralized under the Meiji government in the 19th century, the concept of filial piety was expended to embrace the idea of loyalty to the emperor, who was regarded as the father of the nation. 20 The Confucian concepts of hierarchy in human society and respect for age were useful in the feudal society, also during the Tokugawa period, which was structured hierarchically.Its stability rested on individual’s dutiful fulfillment of obligations to their superiors and maintenance of proper conduct in daily life. The general rules of conduct were respect for seniors in social rank and age, and acknowledgement of the superiority of man over women. Additionally, Confucius laid down that Ren or benevolence was the supreme virtue the follower can attain. As a strictly natural and humanistic love, it was based upon spontaneous feelings cultivated through education. In order to attain Ren, you have to practice Li, which represents social norms.The latter can be interpreted as rituals, rites or proprieties and includes all moral codes and social institutions. As Li is a term for moral codes and social institutions, one could assume that the practice of Li is to enforce social conformity at the cost of the individual. However, an individual personality is not an entity cut off from the group. According to Confucius, in order to establish one self, one has to establish others. There is interdependence between the individual and the group that is essential in order to create harmony.The strong Japanese cultural preference for basing business transactions upon the quality of inter-personal relationships and for settling disputes through mediation rather than relying upon contracts and legal process can be seen to stem from this philosophy (McGreal: 1995). According to Confuci us, all societies deal with survival, production, distribution, and consumption – yet they all develop different systems in order to survive and obtain their ultimate goals and aims. Things have changed in the Japanese society when it comes to material and technological development.As far as human relations and communication with foreigners are concerned, things have not changed. One can say that Japan has modernized, but it has not westernized just yet (Kodansha, 1994: 202-218, McGreal, 1995: 5-7, Cohen, 1997: 159-160, Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 80, 119, 217, Samovar & Porter, 2004: 213-217). 8. 2 Ie Japan is a Shinto, Confucianism and Zen Buddhism inspired culture, Confucianism being the fundament, where everything and everyone is connected and relies on each other in order to exist. 21The concept of ie, or extended household/kinship unit in traditional Japan, thus containing more than close family members all living under the same roof – and under the authority of one m ale, describes this way of thinking, or the Japanese values, the best. The main focus in ie is on in-group benefits, harmony and family – where interdependence and togetherness is essential (de Mooij, 2004: 100-1003, Harumi, 1971). Although the ie-concept does not formally exist in the original form 8 , as it did during the pre-modern or feudal Japan, one still finds it in the underlying values of the Japanese people.The ie-concept 9 became dominant and visible during the Edo or Tokugawa period (16001867), where a strict political regime was introduced by the Tokugawa family, who, besides retaining large estates, also took control of major cities, ports and mines in Japan. Under Tokugawa rule, Japan entered a period of national seclusion (sakoku), where the Japanese were forbidden to travel to or return from overseas or to trade abroad. Only the Dutch, Chinese and Koreans were allowed to remain and they were placed under strict supervision.Additionally, to ensure political se curity, the daimyo were required to make ceremonial visits to Edo every other year, and their wives and children were kept in permanent residence in Edo as virtual hostages of the government. The cost of this constant movement and the family ties in Edo made it difficult for the daimyo to remain anything but loyal. At the lower end of society, farmers were subject to a severe system of rules, which dictated their food, clothing and housing. Social mobility from one class to another was blocked – social standing was determined by birth.Additionally, women in the Japanese society were fully submitted men 10 . Women were submitted either their fathers, husbands or in the case of widows, their eldest son – with no legal rights. Ie means extended household – thus containing more than close family members all living under the same roof – and under the authority of one male. Ie was formally abolished in 1947 with the introduction of the New Constitution, which p rescribed a more â€Å"Democratic† family system based on equal rights of husbands and wives. Inspired by Confucianism. 10 This submission was further supported by the Civil Code of 1898, which placed women in the family under the authority of men. 8 22 The patriarchal family structure, ie, was officially abandoned in 1947, but one can still sense its presence, in a revised form, in today’s Japanese society – both in the corporal system where the chief executive is the male, who has been working for the company longest time, and in family life where women take care of children and men provide for the well-being of the amily. Nevertheless, the rigid emphasis of these times on submitting unquestionably to rules of obedience and loyalty has lasted to the present day. Today the ie-concept is still visible in that Japanese businessmen do not entertain their business associates at home. There is both a practical and a social reason for not doing so. First of all, the typical Japanese home is small and a larger group of people simply cannot fit in. Second,† Home† for the Japanese is very private.It is generally only open to relatives, long-time friends, children’s friends and their own family – the so-called in-group. Additionally, salary has for many years been linked to the age of employees until they entered their forties to fifties age – a male worker had thus a lifetime-employment guarantee until they reached their fifties. However, this system does not operate in small-business sector. The seniority system is one of the special characteristics of Japanese employment practices.Since the 1990s, however, there has been a substantial increase in the number of companies, who are reconsidering this type of employment system, and progress is being made in introducing a new compensation system based on employee’s performance rather than their age and the amount of time they have worked for the company in ques tion (Sugimoto, 1997: 80, Kodansha, 1994: 117-118, Hendry, 1998: 22-39). In short, ie puts an emphasis upon continuity, succession practices, and some of the socioreligious (e. . volunteer organizations such as environmental movement groups) functions that still occupy an important place in Japan today (Refsing, 1990, 11-25, Bando, 1980: 27-29, Hendry, 1998: 22-39, Harumi, 1971: 38-39, Sugimoto, 1997: 80, Kodansha, 1994: 117-118) 8. 3 The Wa-concept According to Wierzbicka, cultural values and behavior of a particular culture can be found in a core concept. For Japan this core concept is wa, which means harmony, unity or the desire to be one with those of your in-group.The wa-concept illustrates the concept, with several aspects (please see below), that although people have differences, it is the most convenient when people want the same thing at the deepest level. 23 This deep level of sharing underlies the desire for harmony at the interpersonal level, as well as a high level of c onsideration of others within ones group, and creates a unity among members of the in-group. In Japan, individuals are thus expected to act in ways that protect the unity or wa of the in-group (Wierzbicka, 1992).The several aspects, which the Wa-concept consists of, are described and discussed below: Enryo is an aspect that is encompassed in wa, illustrates the effort of avoiding explicit opinions, assessments, or other displays of personal feelings. It is thus a form of self-restraint that proscribes the brining of attention to oneself and ones personal desires in order to avoid having others think badly of one. Japan has been categorized as a high-context culture, and in a communicative context, the meaning is often implicit. The focus is thus on the listener and his or her ability to understand implicit messages.Sasshi refers thus to the ability to guess or intuit another person’s meaning without that person having to express it directly. Implicit communication is essentia l in a collective culture where maintaining harmony and avoiding conflicts is essential. Amae refers to a form of mutual dependency, or a relationship in which one person is in a protective stance toward another (Wierzbicka, 1992). The desire for amae motivates one to belong to a group and depend on another person. Amae emphasizes thus a protective relationship and a mutual dependency between the members of the in-group.Giri refers to a type of obligation felt toward others who have done something good for the person. According to Befu, it is a â€Å"moral imperative to perform ones duties toward members of ones group† (Befu, 1986: 162). It is also a long-term relationship and a sense that one will be forever in the other person’s debt. This sense of obligation is very typical in a culture that stresses the wa-concept as well as in collectivist cultures, where members of the in-group are closely tied to each other. Awase refers to the ability to always be able to adjus t to the situation or the circumstances.The self is thus constantly changing and moving with the situation, whereas the group is constant and needs to be maintained. Thus, maintaining wa equals being flexible in situations, and not on consistently following ones principles. 24 Kenson involves discounting ones abilities and to avoid standing out in order to maintain the status quo of a relationship. Kenson is sometimes manifested in a verbal apology, and it demonstrates a desire not to disturb the nature of the relationship, and a desire to maintain group harmony.For instance, a speaker may begin his or her speech by apologizing to the audience for his or her low status or insufficient knowledge on the topic – this depicts humility. Kata refers to the constant and familiar way something is done. In Japan, there is a kata or form for almost everything – from the way one plays ball to the way one performs a tea ceremony. The Japanese thus value form over function and proc ess over outcome – an important element to remember when involved in negotiations with the Japanese.This again refers to the uncertainty-avoidance that is present in the Japanese culture, which illustrates itself in the form of strict rules and regulation (Wierzbicka, 1992, Gudykunst & Kim, 2003: 5354). 8. 4 Isolation Another dimension characterizing Japan is the historical separateness of Japan from the rest of the world 11 , and the strong belief in the uniqueness of the Japanese culture and society. Its distance from the Asian continent and from the rest of the world had a crucial influence over the formation of the Japanese society and culture.The isolation began during the Tokugawa period when the Tokugawa government was trying to create relative peace and security. Instead, the government was facing stagnation, corruption and isolation. Famines and poverty among the peasants and samurai weakened the system even further. Additionally, foreign ships (from Russia, Britain and the USA) started to examine Japan’s isolation with increasing insistence, and Japan realized that their defenses were outdated and ineffective. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the US Navy arrived with his famous â€Å"black ships† to demand the opening of Japan to trade, followed y other countries. This resulted in a stream of antigovernment feeling among the Japanese due to the fact that it failed to defend Japan against foreigners and of neglecting the national reconstruction and modernization. 11 The first contact with the West occurred about 1542, when a Portuguese ship, blown off its course to China, landed in Japan. 25 After 200 years of total isolation from the outside world – due to the fear of Western and Christian invasion or superiority, Japan agreed to open the country to the outside world.Nevertheless, 200 years of isolation has resulted in a rather great amount of regulations, etc. (one may argue that this is a hidden form of protectionism) that are there in order to adopt an e. g. Western product to the needs and circumstances of the Japanese culture. This separateness, or isolation, has also caused the Japanese to be extremely aware of anything that comes from outside, and they thus strongly distinguish between foreign and native culture, as well as its products and innovations (Reischauer, 1995: 32, Kodansha, 1994: 32-37, 131-132, Wakaba, 1996: 4-12). 8. 5Uniqueness The Japanese people have long believed that they are the children or descendants of gods, living in a divinely land. In the 18th century, the scholar, Motoori Norinaga, was responsible for resurrecting ancient myths about Japan and the Japanese. Before Norinaga’s time, Japanese scholar viewed China and its civilization as the most important in the world. Norinaga attacked this view, claiming that Japan was superior to any other country in the world. According to him, Japan was the country where the Sun Goddess was born, making it the epicenter of all other nations.With the appearance from the early 19th century of Russian, British, and other foreign ships in the waters of Japan, there was an intense debate on how to react, since the country had had a policy of isolation from the rest of the world for two hundred years. The military government thus attempted to promote hate and fear of foreigners by law 12 . In 1825, Expulsion Edict was implemented, prohibiting all barbarians and Westerners from entering Japan. If a foreign ship was seen, it was fired upon and driven off. If foreigners went ashore, they were captured and their ship destroyed. 2 Antiforeign attitudes in Japan have generally been limited to the official level. 26 The belief in superiority and uniqueness of all things Japanese have weakened but not entirely disappeared in the present-day Japan. Although this extraordinarily chauvinistic mentality was temporarily restrained after the defeat in WWII, the post-war â€Å"economic miracle† has reawakened the feelings once again. Nevertheless, the rigid, exclusive world view that has been present in pre-1945 Japan, no longer dominates the country.Ultra-nationalism has been discredited – at least in mainstream social, political, and intellectual life. The ideology that has its place is a set of rules by which society generally has learned to operate efficiently. The set of rules are learned from parent, the authority figures, the educational system and the mass media, and contain among other things social solidarity, or collectivistic behavior and thinking, hierarchical social structure, or power distance, role playing, or tatemae, reciprocal obligations, or group harmony.Although this set of rules is far weaker than the pre-war ultra-nationalistic ideology, it is still more rigid and omnipotent than those of e. g. Western societies. In Japan, the rights of the group are thus prioritized over those of the individual, and there are rules for most activities, creating a dependency on others and on group, which again reinforces an ideal of rules, group harmony and collectivism. The Japanese ideal portrays men and women behaving modestly, speaking prudently, and avoiding offending others and maintaining in-group harmony. For them, the deal of individualism is un-noble, risky and illogical. The Japanese desire people to be polite, courteous and indirect with each other. The Japanese are only frank on rare occasions, striving to put the best face, as well as save face, on themselves and situations (Cohen, 1997:146147, 184-186, 224). To express what one really thinks or feels in Japan is regarded as uncultivated and vulgar. The Japanese do not see themselves in first place as individuals, but as group-oriented members. The social group gives them approval, identity and companionship, status, and meaning as such with their lives.All the group members are interdependent. Matsumoto used a food model in order to describe human relations in Japan, calling it natto (ferme nted soybeans). Fermented soybeans sit in sticky glue of starch, and it is impossible to extract one without pulling out the others – they are all connected by the same glue. According to Matsumoto, the beans represent the closeness and interdependence present in the Japanese culture (March, 1996: 15-34, Kodansha, 1994: 32-37, 131-132, Wakaba, 1996: 4-12). 27 8. 6 Western InfluenceThe Japanese culture has been greatly influenced by Western cultures throughout the years, such as the British, the Prussian (e. g. in 1889, Japan created Western-style constitution greatly influenced by Prussia), the Portuguese, and the American. The Western influence entered the shores of Japan through trade, Christianity (missionaries) and war (WWII and the American occupation), as well as through cultural and business exchanges (e. g. through travels and international business). During the mid-16th Century, the Europeans made their first appearance on the shores of Japan.The first Portuguese to be shipwrecked in 1543 found an appreciative Japanese reception for their skills in making firearms. The Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, arrived in 1549, and was followed by more missionaries who converted local lords to Christianity (several hundred thousand converts particularly in Nagasaki) – keen to profit from foreign trade and assistance with military supplies. Initially, the Japanese emperor saw the advantages of trading with Europeans and tolerated the arrival of Christianity as a counterbalance to Buddhism.However, this tolerance gradually turned into suspicion of a religion, which he saw as a threat to his rule. This suspicion resulted in rulings against Christianity and the crucifixion of 26 foreign priests and Japanese believers in 1597. The prohibition and the prosecution of Christianity continued under the Tokugawa government until it reached its peak in 1637 with the brutal suppression by the authorities of the Christianled Shimabara Rebellion. This put an e nd to the Christian Century although the religion continued to be practiced secretly until it was officially allowed at the end of the 19th Century.Additionally, in order to eliminate Christianity's presence in Japan, it was required for every family to register a Buddhist temple, becoming a familiar scene in every community. Because of this religious policy, all Japanese today are Buddhist by default. The Western influence continued during the Meiji period (1868-1912) when the Japanese economy underwent a crash course in westernization and industrialization. An influx of Western experts was encouraged and Japanese students were sent abroad to acquire expertise in modern technologies.During the Meiji period, the process of modernization and industrialization took place in Japan, inspired by Western philosophers. An almost obsessive admiration and adaptation of Western ideas and culture had taken place during this period. 28 By the 1890s, the Japanese government leaders were concerne d by the spread of liberal Western ideas and encouraged nationalism and traditional Japanese values. Japan was becoming more confident and an equal player to the Western powers, resulting in the abolition of foreign treaty rights and, in the years to come, in nationalism.This continued till Japan’s defeat in WWII, and the American occupation. The main aim of the occupation was to reform the Japanese government through demilitarization, the trial of war criminals and the removal of militarist and ultranationalists from the government. Additionally, a new constitution was introduced, which dismantled the political power of the emperor, forcing him to publicly reject any claim to divine origins. Once again, Japan was influenced, if not ruled, by Western powers. Finally, in the late 19th century, Western Europe became its model for modernization.